Bonner SE, Hastie R, Sprinkle GS, Young SM. Surprisingly, increasing the strength of goal activation (intention) may sometimes produce only limited impacts on successful goal attainment (Webb & Sheeran, 2006). The typical methodological approach to implicit goal priming is the presentation of words, pictures, or other stimuli, either in seemingly unrelated tasks preceding the experimental task or by subliminal priming, both of which render conscious awareness of this influence less likely. In other words, ifthen plans allow people to perform automatized responses in the specified critical situation in a fast and effortless way, and without any further conscious intent. Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. Shackman AJ, Salomons TV, Slagter HA, Fox AS, Winter JJ, Davidson RJ. Austin JT, Vancouver JB. In other words, when the current environmental context has high incentive value, increasing the speed of all actions (even those not directly rewarded) will typically enable more rewards to be harvested per unit time. Such results are consistent with the idea that motivational incentives can influence willingness to expend cognitive effort, yet there is no direct evidence yet that these effects mediate strategy selection within a particular cognitive task. Extrinsic motivation involves avoiding external punishment or seeking rewards. This combination is thought to represent a developmentally normative imbalance that could lead to a heightened influence of motivational cues on adolescents behavior and decisions. Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. These findings imply that motivated states can influence the content and form of long-term memory formation, potentially tailoring the memory trace to support future behaviors consistent with that same motivational state. Diagram showing candidate neural mechanisms of motivationcognition interaction. Small DM, Gitelman D, Simmons K, Bloise SM, Parrish T, Mesulam MM. Hierarchical reinforcement learning and decision making. Isis. Murayama K, Matsumoto M, Izuma K, Matsumoto K. Neural basis of the undermining effect of monetary reward on intrinsic motivation. Bargh JA, Morsella E. The unconscious mind. Berridge KC, Robinson TE. Botvinick MM. Proactive control is the more effective mode, because it enables preconfiguration of the cognitive system for expected task demands. Accordingly, incentive motivation should enhance processes associated with cognitive flexibility (e.g., task switching) via striatal dopamine effects, but can also, as a consequence, produce impairments associated with increased distractibility and reduced cognitive focus (E. Aarts et al., 2011). 2009;100(2):263-291. doi:10.1086/599553, Futagi Y, Toribe Y, Suzuki Y. Identify the correct sequence of steps involved in the motivation process. Could an aging brain contribute to subjective well-being? Such effects in subcortical and cortical targets (e.g., frontal cortex) could alter processing efficiency in a number of ways, such as by sharpening cortical tuning (Gamo & Arnsten, 2011), heightening perceptual sensitivity and discrimination (Pleger et al., 2009), enhancing attentional or cognitive control and working memory function (Pessoa & Engelmann, 2010), and enhancing targeted long-term memory encoding (Shohamy & Adcock, 2010). Carstensen LL. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Kross E, Ayduk O. Motivation and What Really Drives Human Behavior - PositivePsychology.com University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. However, this work also indicates more complexity than the intuitive valence-based dimensions. The concept of motivation is closely related to emotion. Adcock RA, Thangavel A, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Knutson B, Gabrieli JDE. Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. Berridge KC. This decreased effort cost could occur directly, via dopaminergic broadcast effects. With the advance in the neuroscientific and computational approaches to motivation, the time may now be ripe to integrate these divergent views on motivation in a coherent, parsimonious way, instead of using motivation as a convenient catch-all to explain (or explain away) complex aspects of human behavior. Cools R, Robbins TW. The key challenge is that although motivation and cognition are usefully specified as distinct psychological entities, it is not clear that they have separable implementations in the brain. Frank MJ, Kong L. Learning to avoid in older age. Clement TS, Feltus JR, Kaiser DH, Zentall TR. Motivation and Emotion Emotions are complex patterns of bodily and mental changes including physiological arousal, feelings or affect, cognitive processes, and behavioral reactions. Personality processes and individual differences. An explorationexploitation model based on norepinepherine and dopamine activity. In: Zanna MP, editor. Kouneiher F, Charron S, Koechlin E. Motivation and cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. The first section briefly covers some of the recent developments that have rejuvenated the study of motivationcognition interactions from different research perspectives. In addition to instinct theory, there are other theories which have been proposed to help explain motivation. In recent years, two surprising findings have emerged: (1) the explicit motivational value of behavioral goals is often not a strong determinant of whether those goals will be implemented and realized (Gollwitzer, 1999), because nonconscious influences can alter goal pursuit, primarily by modulating the perceived motivational value associated with goal outcomes (Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar, & Trotschel, 2001; Custers & Aarts, 2010); and (2) goal pursuit follows specific stages (e.g., planning vs. implementing) and time courses, such that goal-directed behavior can increase, decrease, or fluctuate over time, depending on the nature of the goal and the feedback received (Gollwitzer, 2012). He also outlined 18 different instincts that included curiosity, maternal instinct, laughter, comfort, sex, and food-seeking. Recent years have seen a rejuvenation of interest in studies of motivationcognition interactions arising from many different areas of psychology and neuroscience. Motivational influences on cognitive control: Behavior, brain activation, and individual differences. Murty VP, Adcock RA. From motivation to action: Functional interface between the limbic system and the motor system. Here the approach/avoidance (or relatedly, promotion versus prevention) motivational distinction becomes especially relevant, in terms of both trait-related individual differences (what goals the individual finds desirable), as well situational context manipulations (to minimize failure or maximize success). Identify the correct sequence of steps involved in the motivation process. Botvinick MM. Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA. A promising approach to investigate feedback effects has been to explore how they interact with goal commitment level to influence motivation. Mostly considered in research on addiction, mainly recapitulates animal literature. In: Aarts H, Elliot AJ, editors. Baumeister RF, Showers CJ. In: Tesser A, Schwarz N, editors. Contrasting accounts have also focused on motivational reprioritization, but instead as a specific response to age-related cognitive decline. A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. Describe the three facets of needs. Internal subjective states that generate activational and directional components of motivation, Mental representations of desired states, characterized by feasibility and desirability, commitment, and beliefs. Tension. Motivation-based accounts are also being increasingly emphasized as relevant for determining age differences in cognitive performance. In contrast, model-based learning involves a forward simulation in which the incentive value of an action is directly computed using a sequential transition model of its associated outcomes. Traditional theories (e.g., Ajzen, 1991) assume that the high perceived feasibility and desirability of an imagined future outcome will always result in a strong intention (i.e., a goal) to reach this outcome. In the next two sections, we outline the key challenges of (a) defining motivation and (b) specifying its relevant dimensions. Such contrasts are used to project success expectations, so that these can determine the intensity of goal pursuit. In social psychological treatments, the motivated pursuit of goals is often separated into goal-setting and goal-striving phases (Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996; Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2001). Gollwitzer (1990) coined the summary terms feasibility and desirability to describe the directional and activational determinants of motivation, respectively. Bonner SE, Sprinkle GS. For example, in one study, individuals who differed in their beliefs about intelligence showed distinct patterns of behavioral and neural responses to errors in a demanding cognitive task. The theory behind the age-related positivity effect. As a consequence, researchers working in one subfield may not be aware of the distinctions prominent in another, and as such, may not be sufficiently informed and constrained by them in their own research investigations. The assumption is that age differences in active emotion regulation goals will be less strongly expressed when those goals are competing with experimentally imposed task goals (e.g., remembering items for a subsequent memory test). Here we briefly discuss how motivation has been defined and operationalized from within these different traditions. Analyze how systems of needs shape consumer behavior and marketing. The ubiquity of model-based reinforcement learning. Raising and falling as circumstances change, and as time passes, motives contribute to the ongoing stream of behavior. Motivation and Emotion - Southeast Missouri State University Nevertheless, incentive salience is not thought to be goal-directed, in the sense described above. Daw ND, ODoherty JP, Dayan P, Seymour B, Dolan RJ. Luciana M, Collins PF. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. Dopamine and adaptive memory. Ryan RM, Mims V, Koestner R. Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Hbner R, Schlsser J. Padmala S, Pessoa L. Reward reduces conflict by enhancing attentional control and biasing visual cortical processing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Anthony Dickinson, Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. Murayama K, Matsumoto M, Izuma K, Sugiura A, Ryan RM, Deci EL, Matsumoto K. How self-determined choice facilitates performance: A key role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Motivation represents a motive towards something. In fact, psychologists have proposed a number of motivational constructs to explain human behavior (some of which are already discussed in this article), such as intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985), need for achievement (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1976), need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977), achievement goals (Dweck, 1986), self-enhancement motives (Sedikides & Strube, 1997), and self-consistency motive (Aronson, 1968), just to name a few. Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell. Indeed, accounts of this flavor have been put forward in the animal learning literature to explain the effects of reinforcing high-effort behaviors in the development of work ethic (Clement, Feltus, Kaiser, & Zentall, 2000) or learned industriousness (Eisenberger, 1992). Thus, more work will be needed to understand whether the concepts of mental contrasting and mindsets can be translated into more basic experimental domains. Both rodent (Douglas, Varlinskaya, & Spear, 2003) and human models (Cauffman et al., 2010; Steinberg et al., 2008; Luciana and Collins, 2012) suggest that reward seeking, novelty seeking, and exploratory behavior peaks in adolescence. So, what exactly is instinct? No worries! A discriminative property of conditioned anticipation. Another experimental approach to the positivity effect is to focus on the role of cognitive control, under the assumption that control is required to maintain emotion regulation goals in an active and accessible state. Explanation: In the motivation process model, motivation is characterised as a progression of the decision . Thank you, {{form.email}}, for signing up. Is the way that we behave something we are born with, or is it something that develops as we age and due to the experiences we have? Learning which actions bring about the valued outcomeunlike habit, goal pursuit behavior is sensitive to outcome revaluation. One form of PIT, termed general PIT, enhances instrumental responses even when they are not linked to the Pavlovian outcome (e.g., for a thirsty animal, a water-predicting cue can increase instrumental responding for a food reward; Dickinson & Dawson, 1987). As the above sections have detailed, the distinctions and dimensions investigated in studies of motivation vary greatly in terms of disciplinary focus. The role of motivation in the age-related positivity effect in autobiographical memory. However, the fit of this account to experimental findings is somewhat mixed, indicating that further theoretical and experimental work will be needed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of motivational impairment effects. Deanna M. Barch, Department of Psychology, Washington University in St. Louis, CB1125, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA. These include action initiation, persistence, goal-shielding, feedback integration, and disengagement. Indeed, studies probing dynamic interactions within striatocortical circuitry have demonstrated adolescent-specific patterns of neural reactivity and heightened functional connectivity that parallel a reduced capacity to withhold behavioral responses to appetitive cues (Somerville et al., 2011). Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Holroyd CB, Yeung N. Motivation of extended behaviors by anterior cingulate cortex. In social and personality psychology, the emphasis is on the pursuit of temporally extended goals involving high-level incentives (power, achievement, and affiliation) and assessing self-reported beliefs and goal striving behaviors. Then a miracle occurs: Focusing on behavior in social psychological theory and research. Motivation process begins when there is an unsatisfied need in a human being. To further complicate matters, we are driven by a multitude of different motives at any one point in time. Thus, it is possible to interpret these results as suggesting that beliefs about intelligence alter (a) how task errors are interpreted by the brain and (b) their motivational impact on subsequent performance. Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Chiew KS, Braver TS. As one example, functional MRI evidence has shown that reward-versus punishment-motivated learning reconfigures neural circuits, with marked consequences for the sensitivity of memory encoding systems (Adcock et al., 2006; Murty & Adcock, 2013; Murty et al., 2012). The most frequent candidates in this regard are affect, attention, arousal, and high-level decision-making strategies. As we have reviewed above, and as is detailed in this special issue, some of these findings are having a strong impact on, and are being impacted by, current cognitive neuroscience research. Similarly, there is evidence for intact reward motivation and enhancement of positive anticipation relative to negative anticipation in older adults self-reported emotional ratings and neural activation in the striatum and anterior insula (Samanez-Larkin et al., 2007). The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. Motivation Process Shaped by unsatisfied needs and the resulting tension, drives-->goal oriented behaviors-->goal attainment need satisfaction-->reduction of tension Two Categories of Needs Motivation Theories Content Theories and Process Theories Content Theories Motivational influences are not just transitory, however, but can also persist in a tonic fashion across behavioral contexts. Accordingly, motivation is commonly assumed to have only beneficial and monotonic influences on goal pursuit. The effects of monetary incentives on effort and task performance: Theories, evidence, and a framework for research. Baltes PB. OReilly RC, Frank MJ. Goal setting and goal striving. Likewise, emerging insights into the mechanisms of motivation have been prompted by new evidence that motivation influences cognition in areas where it had previously been thought irrelevantfor example, in long-term memory formation. Self-regulation, ego depletion, and motivation. Tasks that provide the opportunity for achievement pride will have high incentive value and will be associated with specific behavioral choices that indicate high effort expenditure and task persistence. A common approach in this tradition is to assess cognitive task selection and engagement as a function of the motivational value associated with that task (see, e.g., Freund, 2006; Germain & Hess, 2007). Unsatisfied needs activated by internal stimuli such as hunger and thirst. Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W. Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. It is a construct that spans many levels of analysis, complexity, and scope, from cellular and systems neuroscience, to individual differences and social psychology (plus applied domains such as educational and industrial/organizational psychology, and clinical psychology and psychiatry). However, recent work using skin conductance as a marker of physiological arousal has found evidence of processes consistent with a noradrenergic contribution to such paradoxical incentive effects (Murty, LaBar, Hamilton, & Adcock, 2011). We will then move on to discuss network and circuit interactions. However, it is thought to be metabolically or computational costly, because it depends upon the active representation and sustained maintenance of task goals in lateral PFC. Cacioppo JT, Petty RE, Feinstein JA, Jarvis WBG. One version holds that high motivation shifts the balance of influence toward an impulsive limbic reward system myopically focused on immediate rewards, and away from a more prospectively oriented prefrontal cortical system oriented toward maximizing long-run gains (Loewenstein, Rick, & Cohen, 2008; S. M. McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, & Cohen, 2004). There is support for this idea from the animal literature, but only for physical effort (Breton, Mullett, Conover, & Shizgal, 2013; Salamone & Correa, 2012). Dommett E, Coizet V, Blaha CD, Martindale J, Lefebvre V, Walton N, Redgrave P. How visual stimuli activate dopaminergic neurons at short latency. Aronson E. Dissonance theory: Progress and problems. Intrinsic motivation is engagement in a task for inherent satisfaction; extrinsic reinforcement may undermine this effect. From a psychological perspective motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. The Moro reflex is a startle reaction seen in babies less than 6 months of age, and the Babkin reflex is when babies open their mouths and flex their arms in response to rubbing the palms of their hands. Infants display these instinctive reactions when confronted by stimuli in their environment. Blackwell LS, Trzesniewski KH, Dweck CS. Totah NK, Kim Y, Moghaddam B. Eysenck MW, Derakshan N, Santos R, Calvo MG. Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. In: Heyes C, Huber L, editors. The preceding sections highlighted the differences in how motivation is defined and investigated in various subfields. The Motivation Process: Strength & Direction Motivation can be described in terms of: - Strength: The pull it exerts on the consumer. Weve got your back. A second test is Pavlovianinstrumental transfer (PIT; Dickinson & Balleine, 1994; Estes, 1943), in which presentation of a Pavlovian cue (i.e., predictive of reward not contingent on instrumental behavior) can enhance instrumental responding, although the cue had not previously been paired with such instrumental responses. Discriminative conditioning: I. It was found that on control trials the two networks were relatively segregated (modular) and locally efficient (high within-network functional connectivity), but on high-reward trials between-network connectivity increased, decreasing the decomposability of the two networks. Signal detection theory and psychophyics. Haber SN, Fudge JL, McFarland NR. chapter six Flashcards | Quizlet Nevertheless, we believe that the time is ripe to move toward greater cross-disciplinary interaction and integration. Need Drive Incentive Reward . Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. This approach has been used to demonstrate that (a) larger positivity effects (Age Valence interactions) are observed during unconstrained conditions, relative to those that provide task-related goals (e.g., to remember items for a subsequent memory test; Reed, Chan, & Mikels, 2014); and conversely, (b) positivity effects can emerge in younger adults instructed to focus on their emotions (Kennedy, Mather, & Carstensen, 2004; Mather & Johnson, 2000). Leah H. Somerville, Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Dickinson A, Balleine BW. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Some, including distinctions between phases of high-level goal pursuit (e.g., goal setting vs. goal striving), are studied almost exclusively from within one domain. For example, while we might be more biologically prepared to be afraid of a dangerous animal such as a snake or bear, we will never exhibit that fear if we are not exposed to those animals. The relationships between these two neuromodulatory systems, and arousal and motivation more generally, have not been systematically investigated in cognitive neuroscience research. Components: Directional component orients toward goal state, and activation component invigorates and energizes action. Dopamine, in particular, is known to have a range of effects on cellular-level physiology, including modulating synaptic learning signals (Calabresi, Picconi, Tozzi, & Di Filippo, 2007; Lisman et al., 2011; J. N. Reynolds & Wickens, 2002), altering neuronal excitability (Henze, Gonzalez-Burgos, Urban, Lewis, & Barrionuevo, 2000; Nicola, Surmeier, & Malenka, 2000), enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio (Durstewitz & Seamans, 2008; Thurley, Senn, & Luscher, 2008), and impacting the temporal patterning of neural activity (Walters, Ruskin, Allers, & Bergstrom, 2000). Answer (b) Unsatisfied need, tension, drives, search behaviour, satisfied behaviour, reduction of tension. In terms of the neural mechanisms of attention and motivation, Pessoa and Engelmann detailed a number of possible different scenarios: (a) full independence, via distinct neural pathways; (b) mediation, in which at least part of motivational influence is mediated by changes in attentional processes and neural systems; and (c) integration, in which there is tight coupling between motivational and attentional brain systems, either in terms of convergence zones (hubs) or via network-wide interactions. DArdenne K, Lohrenz T, Bartley KA, Montague PR. Our hope is that the forging of new cross-disciplinary approaches and collaborations, hopefully inspired by this special issue, will lead us toward a more unified and comprehensive account of the mechanisms of motivationcognition interaction. Tension, drives, search behaviour, unsatisfied need, satisfying behaviour, reduction of tension, Answer (b) Unsatisfied need, tension, drives, search behaviour, satisfied behaviour, reduction of tension. and transmitted securely. Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples. This type of account also aligns with the influential ego depletion literature in social psychology (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007), which assumes that exertion of control depletes a limited resource (but see Inzlicht et al., 2014; Kurzban et al., 2013), and that motivation compensates for depletion by decreasing peoples tendency to conserve will-power (Muraven & Slessareva, 2003). Transient D1 dopamine receptor expression on prefrontal cortex projection neurons: Relationship to enhanced motivational salience of drug cues in adolescence. Table 1 presents the differential representations and usage of key concepts across fields, including some examples of potential conflicts in usage. Operant Conditioning Theory Positive affect versus reward: Emotional and motivational influences on cognitive control. Daw ND, Niv Y, Dayan P. Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. (ii) Tension Unsatisfied need creates tension. An important, but often overlooked, area of motivation involves the study of beliefs and their impact. These individual differences are typically discussed in the framework of reward sensitivity and threat sensitivity (e.g., BIS/BAS scale; Carver & White, 1994), or in related self-regulatory dimensions, such as promotion (focus on advancement and accomplishment) versus prevention (focus on safety and security; Higgins, 1997). Phillips PE, Walton ME, Jhou TC. The term attention is often used similarly to motivation, in describing how processing resources are allocated, how they can be captured by salient stimulus cues, and how they are influenced by behavioral goals and expectations. In these studies, the reward that can be earned on a particular trial is cued at its beginning, either clearly visible, or presented subliminally. Raz N, Ghisletta P, Rodrigue KM, Kennedy KM, Lindenberger U. Although the body of work examining motivational influences on basic cognition and higher-level goal pursuit is rapidly growing, often there is little cross-talk between neurocognitively focused researchers and those taking social/personality and lifespan perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. Thus, more work in this area is clearly needed. Sarter M, Gehring WJ, Kozak R. More attention must be paid: The neurobiology of attentional effort. However, motivation does not always improve and may in fact impair task performance in a variety of conditions (Bonner, Hastie, Sprinkle, & Young, 2000; Bonner & Sprinkle, 2002; Camerer & Hogarth, 1999). Motivation resulting from completed and missing actions. The basal ganglia: Focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Incentive context has been found to be associated with enhanced task performance and sustained neural activity, but these effects were independent of trial-specific incentive value (Chiew & Braver, 2013; Jimura et al., 2010). Department of Psychology, University of Reading, Reading, UK. true. Monin B, Miller DT. A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Sorrentino RM. Myers DG. The integration of these signals reflects more than just additive contributions of cognitive demands and reward value, but actually enhances functional coding within PFC, such as by maximizing signal-to-noise ratio, enhancing discriminability of visuospatial signals, and increasing the amount of information transmitted by PFC neurons (Kobayashi, Lauwereyns, Koizumi, Sakagami, & Hikosaka, 2002; Leon & Shadlen, 1999; Pessoa, 2013; Watanabe, 1996; Watanabe, Hikosaka, Sakagami, & Shirakawa, 2002). Most reinforcement learning accounts have neglected motivational variables (Dayan & Balleine, 2002); thus, the proposed RPE-type mechanisms that govern learning of CS+ reward values do not typically incorporate instantaneous effects of change in motivational state, or whether instrumental responding is goal-directed. Mobbs D, Hassabis D, Seymour B, Marchant JL, Weiskopf N, Dolan RJ, Frith CD. Dickinson A, Balleine B. Motivational control of instrumental action. Hess TM, Emery L. Memory in context: The impact of age-related goals on performance. Selective engagement of cognitive resources: Motivational influences on older adults cognitive functioning. McClelland DC, Atkinson JW, Clark RA, Lowell EL. Emotional experience improves with age: Evidence based on over 10 years of experience sampling. In: Whitbourne SK, Sliwinski MJ, editors. Thurley K, Senn W, Luscher HR. Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation. Advances in experimental social psychology. maslow's hierarchy of needs implies that the order of needs is fixed (t/f) true. These behaviors are interpreted in terms of the unique trajectories of brain development that occur during this age period, in which the key mechanisms that modulate dopamine circuitry function are maximally activated, leading to biased dynamic interactions within subcorticalcortical neural circuits. The broadcast release of global neuromodulators, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, is thus likely to have complex rather than monotonic effects, which nevertheless may have synergistic actions at multiple levels of functioning. Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Shima K, Tanji J. Approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from psychological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and release tension and arousal.
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